In
the article Anthropological Research on
Hazards and Disasters, Anthony Oliver-Smith stated that “Recent
perspectives in anthropological research define a disaster as a process/event
involving the combination of a potentially destructive agent(s) from the
natural and/or technological environment and a population in a socially and
technologically produced condition of vulnerability” (Oliver-Smith, 1996,
p.303). That indicates a view to understand disaster as a process that combines
the source agent(s) in one hand and human population with its social and
technological vulnerabilities on the other (Bankoff, 2007). Addressing
disaster in terms of the source agent is a focus on the natural hazards (like-
earthquakes, tornados, famine and floods) and
its impact to unfold the process associated with the target agent, is
reflected in the disciplinary understandings of Geography and other geophysical
sciences, like- Geology, Volcanology, Hydrology and Geomorphology (Mercer,
Kelman, Lioyd and Pearson, 2008; Perry, 2007).
Contrastingly, voluminous
sociological and anthropological researches on the adaptive strategies of the
societies in stressful and hazardous environments reflect that, the source of hazard(s) is not necessarily present in the
natural environment; rather they are controlled by the social, economic and
political forces to a given context (Vayda and Mckay, 1975; Torry, 1979). Quarantelli (2005) argued that the study on
disasters does not mean the exclusive study of hazard; rather contemporary disciplinary
understanding of disaster shows that the meaning of disaster is socially constructed and
is clearly a social issue as opposed to the term, ‘hazard’, a natural agency
like- flood, famine and earthquake.
The
emergence of new form of hazard and rapidly changing human-environmental
relations and conditions of the globe, leads multiple meanings of disaster to
the researchers of the concerned disciplines and offers the definitional debate
over the issue (Oliver-Smith, 1996; Mustafa, 2005). Any government organization
develops ‘mandated’ definitions of disaster to indicate and determine the
boundaries of emergency management and response (Perry, 2007; Buckle, 2005);
the emergency managers hold a specific view on what constitutes a disaster
(Britton, 1986), whereas the social scientists perceive disaster as a situation
or an event that offers a temporary or permanent threat to the social order or
to a given normative social system (Wallace, 1956; Fritz, 1961; Stallings,
1998). A number of definitions then should be taken into account to obtain the
meaning of disaster with the consideration of the ‘contextuality’ of
definitions (Perry, 2007).
The specific purpose,
contexts and interests of the definer or researcher generates a range of
definitions of disaster in disciplinary terms. David Alexender (2005)
identified a class of disciplines (Geography, Anthropology, Sociology,
Developmental Studies, Health Sciences, Geo-Physical Sciences and Social
Psychology) that never addressed the definition of disaster before studying it.
So, the empirical experiences and the context(s) to approach such a social
issue like disaster, acts as the ground to define it. The empirical experiences
of disaster as a social phenomenon, Britton (2005) opined, should be understood
as a unique identity compare to, the existing notion of disaster.
As per as the
‘empericality’ and ‘contextuality’ of disaster is concerned in scientific
practices and explanations of the phenomenon, like-disaster, the scholars show
a high degree of definitional debate over the issue; that reflects the lack of
consensus to a universally accepted definition of disaster (Cutter, 2005).
Trying for consensus of the definition of disaster then, may not worth
thinking; rather, Jigyasu (2005) argued that, the researcher should clarify and
address their view to the area of thinking (either on ‘disaster research’ or
‘disaster management’); that may help to the new comer in disaster study to get
a clear view of the disaster research, which alternatively means research on
disaster, research in disaster or research on disaster management.
The definitional
debate of the term, ‘disaster’ necessitates the clarification in different
perspectives. Cutter (2005) argued that the researchers use a number of ‘terms’
(like- hazards, risks, disasters, and vulnerability) to indicate, reflect and
explain the nature and source of the agent(s) (man-made or natural), their
threat and impact to denote human inability for facing the ‘unexpected’. She further clarified each of the terms to
differentiate the degree of application of the terms in contexts. The
ontological debate on disaster is a continuous episode that greets all the
alternative usage of the term (Perry, 2007).
Uniqueness
of anthropology than other social science disciplines interested in disaster
studies is that- it seeks to explore disaster in totality, includes
environmental, biological and socio-cultural planes together to understand the
process of disaster (Hoffman, 2010). Disaster is located at the interface of
culture, society and environment that offers anthropology to account the
phenomena as a major research area (Reddy, 2011). Disasters as research area
promote a real challenge for anthropology, as Fjord and Manderson (2009)
argued, “Few research topics provide more daunting challenges than disaster
studies because of the magnitude of what the discipline encompasses: the
diversity of natural and human-made hazards, the spectrum of social and
physical geographies, the ethno-historical, sociopolitical, and economic factors
that locate specific circumstances in larger global climatic, geophysical and
social processes” (Fjord and Manderson, 2009, p. 64). The account of disaster
studies are so vast and varied (Oliver-Smith and Hoffman, 2002), it is very
difficult to systematically arrange the approaches in a chronological paradigm.
Anthropological
studies on disasters were initiated in almost 1950s (Drabek, 1986). The nature
of anthropological inquiry of disaster then was atheoretical and totally
uninvolved to the definitional issue, rather the prime focus on the responses
of the ‘traditional’ communities to the specific events (Oliver-Smith, 1999).
Anthropology during 1940s and 1950s contributed a very little to the study of
disasters as a process and obtained the meaning of disaster as something that
disrupts human ‘normal’ living (Anderskov, 2010).
The adaptive strategies of the societies in
stressful and hazardous environments were taken to account in a
structural-functional and particularistic ideology to indicate the disruption
disaster represents to a normal daily life (Torry, 1979; Anderskov, 2010). The
era is known as ‘Anthropology of Suffering’ (Davis, 1992). The studies on
adaptive strategies lead the question of adaptation to hazard and disasters is
paralleled by a similar concern about the long term sustainability of
resource(s) use along with present levels of environmental degradation and
pollution (Oliver-smith, 1999). However, the studies on adaptive strategies
guided a new pathway to anthropological research regarding disaster. The new
trend showed that any disaster involves loss of property and means of
livelihood, calls for a change in the modes of subsistence and the social
organization that regulates them (Firth, 1959). The era reflects an idea that
disaster as a social phenomenon disrupts and constitutes cultural meaning(s) to
a given cultural milieu.
The
trend of viewing disaster as a factor of social change emerged in the 1960s and
1970s. In this era, disasters have been sensed as a catalyst factor for social
change (Anderskov, 2010). Anthony Oliver-Smith (1996) commented that,
“Disasters can also be important factors in social and cultural change. In the
sense that a disaster damages or destroys a society’s ability to provide,
however differentially, for the needs of its members, new adjustments or
arrangements may have to be formulated for it to continue functioning. Thus,
disaster research inevitably addresses the issue, or at least the potential, of
change (Oliver-Smith, 1996). A good number of anthropological studies in this
phase were conducted with a deep attention to long term social change as major
implication of disaster (Oliver-Smith, 1996; Minnis, 1985).
At
the very beginning of 1980s, disaster studies in anthropology shifted its new
theoretical turn to the study of political-economic perspectives of disaster
(Oliver-Smith, 2002). The ideologies of structural Marxism and political
economy lead the pathway of introducing the new pathway to the disaster
research (Anderskov, 2010). Criticizing the disaster researches on 1960s and
1970s, disaster anthropologists of this era claimed a detailed theoretical scrutiny
of how societies have been evolved with the rise of capitalism and/or modern
state structures (Anderskov, 2010; Ortner, 1984). Oliver-Smith (1996) mentioned
in this context- “Since the early 1980s, many anthropological and cultural
geographers, following the growth of both cultural ecological and political
economic perspectives in those disciplines, began to reconsider disasters less
as the result of geo-physical extremes such as storms, earthquakes, avalanches,
droughts, etc and more as functions of an ongoing social order, of this order’s
structure of human environmental relations, and of larger framework of
historical and structural processes, such as colonialism and underdevelopment,
that have shaped these phenomena” (Oliver-Smith, 1996, p.314). The phase of
disaster research invited the anthropologists from third-world to rethink about
disasters from political-economic perspectives, based on the correlations
between disaster proneness, chronic malnutrition, low income and famine
potential, that establishes disaster as embedded in its social root than
natural magnitude (Hewitt, 1983; Oliver-Smith, 2002; Anderskov, 2010).
Power
as a central theme to disaster studies in anthropology emerged in the mid of
1980s (Oliver-Smith, 2002). The era constituted the notion that disaster is a
context that helps to understand the power relation and arrangements within a
social order (Oliver-Smith, 1996). Two related themes were mainly considered in
this regard- (a) disaster as opportunity/cause for political socialization and
mobilization, and (b) disaster caused alterations with the state (Oliver-Smith,
1996; Johnston and Schulte, 1992). Disaster can transform political
consciousness, dissolve power arrangements, creates political solidarity,
activism, new agendas and may develop new power relations (Johnston and
Schulte, 1992; Oliver-Smith, 1992). Hewitt (1983) labelling the traditional
disaster researches as the ‘dominant view’ (form the perspectives of the policy
makers and government functioning), criticized them to focus too much on the
nature and cutting off the everyday life experiences and ordinary human
activity from disaster issues; suggested to take account on the human ‘lived’
experiences and senses to understand a disaster. The transformation of cultural
meaning(s) due to disaster as a central meaning shifted the focus of
contemporary anthropological research to the study of the crisis and everyday
life (Winchester, 1981). Individual’s social position and response are taken into
account as the unit of study of disasters like wars and famine (Moser, 1989).
The
appeal to interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary attempts of disaster studies
find its logic that no one discipline can provide all the answers, solutions or
what we think relevant to understand a disaster in totality (Quarantelli,
2005). Considering the complexities of the disaster in the face of rapid globalization
and industrialization, integration of different disciplinary interpretation of
disasters should be taken into account (Reddy, 2011).
Following
Hewitt’s notion of disaster research, Blaikie et.al (1994) developed
interdisciplinary research approach in anthropology to study disaster.
Disasters are now considered as socially constructed phenomena and are clearly
found in its social, economic and political realm (Anderskov, 2004; O’Keefe,
Westgate and Wisner, 1976). The current research trends in anthropology focuses
on the concept of vulnerability in terms of the social, economic and political
conditions which differently affects individuals and groups, as well as the
overall capacity of the community to absorb shock and recover (O’Keefe, Westgate
and Wisner, 1976). The ‘shock’ related to a disaster and its system of
recovery, needs an interdisciplinary attention. There have been many research
efforts of using social psychological theories to unify and expand current
conceptions of access in ethnographic research-the process by which researchers
gather data via interpersonal relationships with participants/informants
(Harrington, 2003). A number of researchers have begun to recognize the
increasing importance of broader anthropological and social psychological
issues in the study of humans in extreme environments (Johnson and Finney,
1986; Harrison and Connors, 1984; Pierce 1985). In addition, the social-
psychological issues of reactions (like- fear, anxiety, anger, impatience,
irritability, grief, shame, guilt, stress, trauma, etc.) to disasters and
mechanisms of resilience may be an effective means for contemporary
anthropological researches, theory building and policy making on well-being
(Greene, 2003; Johnson and Finney, 1986).
Disasters
in the contemporary fast and changing world are more complex and severe
(Cutter, 2005). As a social phenomenon, disaster calls for a serious,
systematic and theoretical social science perspectives (Reddy, 2011). Though,
sociology has contributed systematic and extensive study on disasters for last
five decades, anthropology is not yet rich in this area of research, specially
in theoretical issues (Oliver-Smith, 2002; Quarantelli, 2005). But, the
scholars from different subfields of anthropology are gaining their interests
in disaster researches now days (Hoffman, 2010; Reddy, 2011). Hoffman (2010) mentioned that medical
anthropology reflects the researches on the health impact of disasters,
political anthropology on political ecology issues, like- hegemony, neoliberalism
and environmental advocacy, environmental anthropology on disaster impacts on
the communities depended upon natural resources and psychological anthropology
on victim liminality and Post Traumatic Stress Disorders (PTSD). The disaster
issues in medical, political, environmental and psychological anthropology
shows a high degree of interdisciplinary trends of research, as Reddy (2011)
rightly mentioned that- anthropology can immensely contribute to disaster
discourse due to its multidimensionality and methodological rigor.
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NOTE
This brief content has been published at international journal of Physical and Social Sciences; article entitled as Disaster and Anthropology: An overview on the Shifts of Theorizing Disaster in Interdisciplinary spectrum, 2014, vol.4, issue: 4, pp. 385-395. anyone can view the article at-https://www.academia.edu/8876480/Disaster_and_Anthropology_An_Overview_on_the_Shifts_of_Theorizing_Disaster_in_Interdisciplinary_Spectrum